Political Inquiry Terms and Definitions

Research Design * Good research, bad research * Involves connecting theory and data. * Maximising leverage by using very few variables to explain many effects. * Reports on the degree of certainty of results. * Shows true causal relationship, not just correlation. * Provides accurate data and accounts for other variables. * Determines if the relationship is unidirectional. * Purpose of research * To establish a relationship between two or more variables * To demonstrate that the results are generally true in the real world and not in just a particular context. To reveal whether one phenomenon precedes another in time, establish time order * To eliminate as many alternative explanations for the observed finding as possible * Choice of design * What affects * Is research exploratory, descriptive or explanatory * What are the practical limitations in investigating hypothesis. * Experimental design: * Classical experimental design, 2 groups, pre and post test, randomisation, * Simple pos t test: only post test * Repeated measure design, measure how long effect takes to start. Multiple pre and post tests. Multigroup design, more than 2 groups, can compare different levels of experimental variable. * Randomised Field experiments, applies logic of randomisation and variable manipulation * Non-randomised quasi-experiments. Purposeful selection, target a certain group. * Non-experimental design: single group, no control over assignment and application of IV, inability to measure DV. * Case study: small N designs. Provide detailed explanation * Comparative analysis: compare two or several units in relative detail * Focus group: gather information about reaction to certain IV. Surveys: large number of people measured to find causal relationships. * Aggregate data analysis: variables are averages or percentages of geographical areas, find causal relationships. * Longitudinal designs, time span. * Trend analysis: measurement on same variables at different time periods to exa mine changes. * Panel analysis: follows a group of participants. * Intervention analysis: measurement of change in the DV is observed and taken before and after. No interaction, mere observation. * Ethnographies: form of data collection through participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.Field studies * Content analysis: textual analysis, study of recordings, written. * What they have in common * They all share the basic objectives of research design despite having different levels of internal and external validity. Using several designs together will cover each other’s shortfall. * They all attempt to draw sound conclusions supported by observable evidence * Terms * Causal vs spurious * Both show correlation between IV and DV, but in spurious the change in DV because 3rd factor caused changed in both. Causal is a direct relationship. 5 different relationships. Multiple causes without chain.Multiple causes with chain. Multiple causes that affect DV, but are changed with the introduction of another variable. Spurious causality with antecedent variable. Chain causality with intervening variable. * Covariation * Demonstrates that the IV does in fact covary with DV. Not causal relationship yet. * Time order * Show that the IV precedes DV. Effect cannot appear before cause. * Alternative causes * Confounding factors. Factors that possible cause a change in DV as well. * Randomised controlled experiments * Experiments that allow the researcher to control the exposure to the IV through assignments to groups.Selection and grouping all randomised. * Experimental design * The way in which the researcher controls exposure to test IV. 5 different designs. * Control group * The group of subjects that does not receive experimental treatment or test stimulus. * Pre-test * Measurement of the DV prior to administration of IV or experimental treatment. * Post test * Measurement of the DV after administration. * Internal vs external validity * Internal validity is the ability to show that manipulation or variation of the IV actually causes change in DV. * External validity is the ability to generalise from one set of research findings to other situations. History * A threat to internal validity. Events other than the experimental stimulus that occur between pretest and posttest measurements. * Along with maturation * Testing * When measuring the DV prior to the stimulus alerts the subjects of the research objectives. * Selection bias * Bias due to the assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups according to some criterion and not randomly. A threat to internal validity. * Experimental mortality * A differential loss of subjects from experimental and control groups that affects the equivalency of groups; threat to internal validity * Instrument decay A change in the instrument used to measure the DV, like different researcher conducting pretest and posttest. * Demand characteristics * Aspects of the research situation that ca use participants to guess at the investigators goals and adjust their behaviour or opinions accordingly. Trying to â€Å"help†. * Simple post test * Similar to classical. Experimental group exposed but control not, only post test is conducted. * Repeated measure design * Contains several pre and post test measurements to know exactly how quickly the effect of the independent variable should be observed or how reliable pretest measurement of DV should be taken. Multi-group design * There are more than one experimental r control group created so different levels of the IV can be compared. Can involve both pre and post test or just one. * Field experiments * They are experimental designs that are applied in a natural setting. Adopts logic of randomisation and variable manipulation. * Non-experimental design * They are designs that do not follow the experimental model of two groups and have controlled exposure to IV. They are more practical to do but are not as strong in terms of establishing causal relationships. * Case study * Comprehensive and in depth study of a single case or several cases.Provide detailed explanations * Comparative analysis * Comparing between two or several units in relative detail * Focus group * Often use to observe reactions to the introduction of the IV. Has a group of people who meet at a single location * Surveys * Measurement of DV and IV at the same time. Respondents report their exposure to various factors. No assignment to groups, examines groups basd on values of IV, measurement of DV to see differences between groups. * Aggregate data analysis * Variables that are displayed as averages or percentages, to find causality. Trend analysis and longitudinal design * Measurements on same variables at different time periods to see the changes caused by the IV on the DV. No manipulation of variables. Multiple measurements. * Panel study * A study that follows a group of participants where the same units are measured at different t imes. * Panel mortality * Refers to the participants in the panel study who drop out. Rate? * Intervention analysis. * Looks at the occurrence of the IV as an observation. Looking at the DV before and after IV. Works best when IV happens in a brief period in time and brief in nature.Measure only before and after event. Literature Review * Purpose of Literature review, 7 * To see what has and has not been investigated * To develop general explanations for observed variations in a behaviour or a phenomenon * To identify potential relationships between concepts and to identify researchable hypothesis * To learn how others have defined and measured key concepts * To identify data sources that other researches have used * To develop alternative research designs * To discover how a research project is related to the work of others. * What constitutes a literature review It is made of different relevant articles that provide more insight into topic * It should help arrive at a good researc h topic * It should show what has and has not been researched * It provides a general explanation for variations in behaviour or phenomenon * It identifies researchable topics * It should help develop alternative research designs * Best methods for collecting literature * Using electronic databases like JSTOR, Web of Science and Google Scholar. * Searching by topic and key words, slowly limiting results, read the articles and find new words to narrow down the search. Searching by starting with a single article. Use data base to find more relevant articles or other articles written by the same author. Use the citations in that first article. Find articles that have cited the first article. * Best ways to write a literature review * It should rely on scholarly sources * It must relate directly to topic * Have to become familiar with as much of the research before selecting the final sources. * Summarising of relevant literature that focuses on over-arching topics rather than single ar ticles. * Compiling all articles into something that makes sense. * Organising the topics ased upon the research question. * Identifying common themes or methodologies across the articles. * Discussion of conventional wisdom, illustrating how current politics has changed and identifying the flaws in past research. Sampling * Terms * Population * all case or observations covered by a hypothesis, all the units of analysis to which a hypothesis applies. * Sample * A subset of observations or cases drawn from a specified population. * Sample statistics * The estimator of a population characteristics or attribute that is calculated from sample data * Advantages and disadvantages of samples Advantages * It is cheaper and less time consuming as compared to using population * More convenient. * Disadvantages * They can be less accurate or more prone to error * Some studies do not use sampling, like case studies. * Population parameter * A characteristic or attribute of a population that can be quantified. * Estimator * A statistic based on sample observations that is used to estimate the numerical value of an unknown population parameter. * Element * A particular case or entity about which information is collected, the unit of analysis. When to use a sample * Practicality. When data from an extremely large population is required, it is impossible to interview or approach each and every subject. Thus sampling is require because although the sample statistics will not exactly equal the corresponding values, they will be reasonably close if sampling is done correctly. * Sampling frame * The particular population in which the sample is actually drawn from. * Random digit dial: purpose of and how and why it works * It is a procedure used to improve the representativeness of telephone amples by giving both listed and unlisted numbers a chance of selection. * It is used to overcome the problem of cell phone numbers which are unlisted * It works by randomly dialling numbers. * It works because it gives all numbers, whether listed or not a chance to get dialled. * Sampling unit * The entity listed in a sampling frame. Maybe same as an element or group. * Sample bias * The bias that occurs whenever some elements of a population are systematically excluded from a sample. It is usually due to an incomplete sampling frame or a non-probability method of selecting elements. Probability sample: types, pros and cons * Sample for which each element has a known probability of being included in the sample * Types: * Simple random samples: each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Pros: each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Cons * It is not truly random, small patterns of selection might appear. * Obtaining a list of the entire population is not possible, reducing the probability. * Systemic samples: elements are selected from a list at predetermined intervals * Pros It is easier to apply than simple random. * Useful when dealing with a v ery large population size. * Cons * May result in biased sampling: if elements on the list have been ranked according to a characteristic. The list contains a pattern that corresponds to the sampling interval. * Stratified samples: elements sharing one or more characteristics are grouped and elements are selected from each group in proportion to the group’s representation in the total population * Pros * Homogeneous populations, smaller sample seize is needed to achieve accuracy. * Cons Heterogeneous populations need a much larger sample to be accurate. * Proportionate samples: stratified samples where each stratum is represented in proportion to its size in the population. * Pros * Very representative of the population * Cons * Not good with heterogeneous populations * Disproportionate samples: stratified samples in which elements sharing a characteristic are under-represented or over-represented. * Pros * When the sample size is too small, can be used to increase it easily. * Cons * May not be representative of the population if weight factor is not used. Cluster samples: the sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements * Pros * Used when no list of elements exists and to create one would be too expensive. * Reduces field work costs * Cons * There is greater imprecision. Samples are not representative of population. * Non-probability samples: types, pros and cons * Each element has an unknown probability of being included in the sample * Types * Purposive samples: when a researcher exercises considerable discretion over what observations to study. * Pros * Can learn more from carefully selected unusual cases. Cons * Not accurately representative of population. * Convenience sample: elements are included because they are convenient and easy for the research to select * Pros * Convenience * Large numbers easy to get * Cons * Unknown accuracy * Quota sample: elements are sampled in proportioned to their representation in the population. * Pr os * Similar to proportionate sampling, but subjects chosen purposefully. * Cons * Selection bias * Snowball sample: respondents are used to identify other persons who might qualify for inclusion into the sample * Pros Good for relatively selective and rare populations * Relationship between samples and statistical inferences * Statistical inferences is the mathematical theory and techniques for making conjunctures about the unknown characteristics of the population based on samples. Making inferences about a population. * Trying to define more clearly what supportable means * Samples provide an estimate of population attributes and may be off from the true population parameter. The difference is the level of precision lost. * 3 types of errors in inference Expected values or sampling error * Expected value is the average value of a sample statistic based on repeated samples of the population. * Sampling error is the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding populatio n parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard errors * The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * Sampling distributions. A theoretical non-observed distribution of sample statistics calculated on samples on size N that, if known, permits the calculation of confidence intervals and the test of statistical hypothesis * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * It allows researchers to calculate the probability that sample statistics fall within certain distances of the population parameter. * Sampling error * the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard error The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * Confidence * How much error this is in a sample. The degree of belief or probability that an estimate range of values includes or covers population parameter. * Sample distribution * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * Sample size. * 100 (11% +/-) * 600 (5% +/-) * 1000 (4% +/-) * 1500 (3% +/-) 4000 (2% +/-) Observations * Terms * Quantitative vs qualitative data * Quantitative data involves a large amount of data and its involves numeric manipulation * Qualitative data involves small number of cases, more in depth and it relies on quotations, comments, anecdotes and other written evidence to support arguments * Both seek to explain trends or patterns through systematically collected data. * Data collection, how do we choose the best way, characteristics of * How to choose the best way * Depends on th e question * Depends on the sample Depends on which constitutes the best measures, validity of the measurements that a particular method will allow. * Depends on cost and availability, some are more observable than others, some less expensive. * Depends on the reactivity to the collection by the population. * Consider ethical implications. * Characteristics * Primary and secondary data * IRB, what role it plays and the significance of it * Institutional review board, a must for any test involving human subjects. * It is guided by 3 principles: respect for persons, beneficence and justice. The role it plays s to ensure that all research conducted will not harm any individuals, recognise that they are autonomous and there is distribution of benefits to participants. To ensure that no ethical boundaries are crossed. * Its significance is that it has removed all unethical research to be done, but this limits the way data is collected. Thus researchers must consider the benefits vs the b urden of the research. * Observation, types and pros and cons: basic distinction is direct and indirect. * Direct * Allows researchers to view things in natural setting more often than laboratory. Field study or ethnography. Observation in lab gives more control over environment ‘ * Pros * Natural settings allow people to act normally, increases validity * Researchers can observe for longer periods of time * Lab can give more control. * Cons * Lab can also mean that subjects know they are being observed and thus alter behaviour, low validity * Natural setting cannot control external effects and variables. * Indirect * Observation of physical traces of behaviour, essentially detective work. Inferences are made based on physical traces * Two types of measures * Erosion Created by selective wear on some material. Looking at what has been eroded or removed, looking at what is left. * Accretion * Measures a phenomenon a manifested through the deposition and accumulation of material s. Seeing what has built up. * Pros * It raises less ethical issues than direct * Some materials or traces of them are more/less durable than other, making them more/less easy to measure, depending on the method. * Less obtrusive, much cheaper than alternatives * Cons * There are many threats to validity, prone to measurement problems * Can be difficult to make strong inferences * Participant Most field studies involve this, proverbial fly on the wall. Observing people for long periods of time. Assume a role or identity within the group. * Pros * Gain deep access into the group through informants * Natural setting * Observe for long periods so changes in behaviour can be studied * Has a degree of accuracy and completeness that other methods cannot provide. * Cons * It is not viable for every question, some things are just unobservable, like voting * Lack of control over the environment, inability to isolate factors * May be invalid or biased, going native.Becoming part of the enviro nment, perceived biased. * Difficulties with replication of study * Non participant * Same as direct. * Overt * Participants are aware of the investigators presence and intentions * Covert * Investigators presence is hidden or undisclosed. * Structured * Investigator looks for and systematically records the incidence of specific behaviours * Unstructured * All behaviour is considered relevant, at least at first, and recorded. * Ethical issues and how to avoid * Negative repercussions from associating with researcher because of the researcher’s sponsors, nationality or outsider status. Invasion of privacy * Stress during research interaction * Disclosure of behaviour or information to the researcher resulting in harm to the observed during or after the study. * How to avoid: ethical proofreading * Assume everything and all identities will be discovered * Look at actual words in manuscript * When describing potentially unflattering things go from general to specific * Be genera l about community at hand * Realise that data and research will be used again * Know what perspective and attitude is towards subject * Caution subjects multiple times Know study limitations and agreement are in advance * Have other people edit sensitive portions. Document analysis * Types of records, pros and cons of utilization * Two types of records * Running: produced by organisations rather than private citizens, carefully stored and easily accessed and is available for long periods of time. * Pros * Low cost in terms of money and time. * Accessibility * Covers more extensive period in time. * Extensive amounts of records * Many records are digitalised * Cons * At the mercy of those who keep the records, may or may not be biased. Questions on recording keeping practices, may not be kept properly. * Episodic: records that are produced and preserved in a more casual, personal and accidental manner. Diaries and memoirs. Important to political historians. * Pros * Used to illuminat e phenomena rather than generate large sample * Provides different perspectives on certain phenomena. * Use qualitatively. * Cons * Gaining access to episodic records can be difficult, locating suitable materials is the most time consuming aspect of data collection * Many are not digitalised. Content analysis, procedures, pros and cons, intercoder reliability * Refers to the use of excerpts, quotes, and examples from recorded documents to support and observation. * Can be both qualitative and quantitative in nature. * Procedures * Decide on appropriate sample, what materials to include in the analysis. * Define the recording or coding units, decide what is actually going to be measured. * Choose categories of content that are going to be measured, deciding the recording unit. How to measure what you want. Code words? Devise a system of enumeration for the content being coded, a numeric system based on what is being coded. Code for number of times X appears. * Pros * Gives researcher s access to subjects that would otherwise be difficult to attain. * Raw data are usually nonreactive, no undesired influences on behaviour. * Written records like newspapers have existed over long periods in time * They can be easily attained * It often enables us to increase sample size above what would be possible though either interviews or direct observation . * The cost of keeping records are borne by the keepers, it is low cost for those using them. Cons * Selective survival, record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials, only selectively. Gaps may exist * Incompleteness. Gaps may exist due to fires losses of other types * Content may be biased. May be incomplete, selectively preserved, inaccurate or falsified * Unavailable to researchers because they are classified. * They lack a standard format because it is kept by different people. * Intercoder reliability * Refers to when two or more coders, using the same procedures, agree on how the content is analysed.The mor e times the coders make the same conclusions the same way, the more claims can be made. * Written records, pros and cons * Pros * Can be used when other means like direct observation or interviews are not possible. * Able to use for large scale collective behaviour, cannot possibly interview all. * Raises fewer ethical issues than observation or interviewing. * No risk to individuals as long as they are not identified in records. * Cheaper than other forms. * Not affected by time or history, what is recorded cannot be changed. * Cons * Gaining access may be difficult, classified Records not kept properly, or purposefully changed Survey research and interviews * definition and difference * surveys are a method of data collection that acts as an alternative to experiments or simulations. * Instead of manipulating an independent variable to view its effects, survey design examines the relationship between variables, better at establishing correlation rather than causation. * Types of s urveys, pros and cons, * Personal, face to face * High cost * High to medium completion rate * Potentially high sample congruence * Long to medium length * High data processing cost * Telephone Medium cost * Medium completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing cost * Mail * Low cost * Low completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * Medium data processing costs * Email * Low cost * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing costs * Internet * Low costs * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing costs * Group administration * Very low costs * High once group is convened completion rate Depends on group selection process, sample congruence * Variable length * High to low data processing costs * Drop off/pick up. * Very low costs * Low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Short length * Low data processing costs. * Completion and response rates, significance of * Refers to the proportion of persons initially contacted who actually participate. * When the proportion of the persons contacted who actually participate is too low, the ability to make statistical inferences about the population is limited * Too little responses, cannot make inferences. * Cost * Time and money. Have to balance between costs and completion rate. * Data processing * Answers of the surveys still have to be tabulated. All data need to be coded in a way that a computer can process them. * Problem with open ended questions. Have to be transcribed and coded. * A major reason for adopting internet and telephone surveys. * Sample-population congruence * Refers to how well the sample subjects represent the population from which they are drawn * Biases can enter through the initial selection of respondents or through incomplete responses. * The closer the congruence, the more repre sentative the sample, higher validity. Length * Too long and respondents lose interest or start answering without care, get distracted. * Too short and not enough data is collected. * Well motivated participants can help with the problem. * Response quality * Cannot take the responses at face value. * Participants may not have the same interests or familiarity with certain topics. * People may be reluctant to express their opinions to strangers. * Busy people won’t answer truthfully. * Interview bias * Occurs when the interviewer influences the respondent’s answers, may have a larger effect on telephone surveys than in person surveys. Question types and wording, what to be careful for and why, pros and cons * Close-ended questions * Pros * Easier for people to answer and takes little time * Easier to sort and tabulate data * Sensitive issues are better paired with close ended questions * Cons * Force respondents to choose from a list they may not agree with * Single si ded and double sided questions that can affect responses * Single side, agree or disagree with a statement * Two sided, gives two alternative statements to choose. Problems of recall versus recognition, can prompt answers that would have otherwise been blank. People don’t know the answer but recall when seeing the choice. * Oversimplified and distorted picture of public opinion * Open-ended questions * Pros * Allows respondents to state what they know and think. * Good for situations where likely answers are not known. * Cons * Respondents may respond too much or too little. * Problem with recording answers, tedious and difficult to code, interpretations vary as well. * Processing data is time consuming. * Wording Wording is important, question clarity is vital to get valid responses. Objectivity and clarity * Avoid * Double barrelled questions * Two questions in one. Sometimes participants might not agree with first question but is made to in order to answer the second. * Am biguous questions * One that contains a concept that is not defined clearly. * Participants may interpret the question wrongly. * Leading questions * Reactive question. Encourages respondents to choose a particular response because the question indicates that the researcher expects it. * Giving what the researcher wants, validity is off. Push polls. * Question order and effects * The order in which questions are presented may influence the reliability and validity of answers. Participants any answer differently or stop when they see certain questions. Can solve response set. * Branching questions * A question what sorts respondents into subgroups and directs them into different parts of the questionnaire * Filter questions * A question that screens respondents from inappropriate questions. * Response set * Straight line responding. * May occur when a series of questions have the same answer choices.Check the first few, then blindly check the rest. * Archives surveys, pros and cons * Existing surveys that have been designed in the past and are readily available to use. * Pros * Very cheap, for those with no access to funding. * Less time is spent designing the surveys. * More reliable and higher quality, widely used thus more reliable. * Well written questions. * Cons * The questions are not what you want. * Interviews, definition, pros and cons. * Interviewing is the act of asking individuals a series of questions and recording their responses.May be face to face or over the phone. * Pros * Sometimes asking questions is the only way * Elites can provide valuable information, but only through interviews. Focused interviews. * Can provide more comprehensive and detailed information, rich variety of perspectives. * Excellent form of data collection in exploratory studies. * Cons * Can be difficult to administer * Have to take into account non-verbal cues and be willing to go off topic * Detailed note taking * face to face, strong necessity for interpersonal skill s.

Plato the Republic Essay

Art has always been controversial in a society because of the many different ways the artist tends to express themselves. Plato, who helped lay the foundation for western culture, saw the problems in art over 2,000 years ago. Plato’s The Republic is a series of books that discusses the republic that Plato is trying to create. In each book Plato touches on different topics dealing with the art, that he feels effect society then. Today, some of the points that Plato argue can still be argued. Plato looks only at the negative effects that art can have, rather than the positive effects. In Book II, Plato focuses on fictitious stories told to children while their growing up. Plato’s first plan is to â€Å"create a censorship of the writers of fiction† (Plato 13). The job of these people will be to pick which stories are â€Å"good â€Å"and which stories are â€Å"bad†. For some people, books like Harry Potter are good and for others it is bad. The point is that one person’s definition of one thing might be the antithesis of another person’s definition. The censorship of writers can be both useful and not useful. The censorship of writers can be useful, because it might keep certain arts out of the child’s hand. It could be not useful because, the parent will make the ultimate decision if the child will hear or read the story. The next point is what makes the people chosen qualified to select what the children should hear, or not. Once again, it brings up the point of people having their own definition of good and bad. In society today, there are ratings to television shows and movies. Some are not rated for children but in the end the parent makes the decision on what the child is allowed to watch. So instead of having a censorship committee, he should educate the parents more. Plato then goes to talk about the effects of letting children hear tales by saying â€Å"and shall we just carelessly allow children to hear any causal tales which may be devised by causal persons, and to receive into their minds ideas for the most part the very opposite of those which we should wish them to have when they grow up† (Plato 13). This shows how Plato only looks the negative effects of art. The positive about having villains in art is they give the children an example of what not to be. Also having villains in art it allows the children to be able to recognize what is bad, and who are bad people. For example, in Little Red Riding Hood, it teaches a child lessons such as do not talk to strangers, and listen to the parents. It also shows children the consequences for not listening to their parents. In Book III, Plato focuses on imitation. Plato goes on to talk about how after imitating for so long it becomes natural for the person â€Å" did you ever observe how imitations, beginning in early youth and continued far into life, at the length grow in habits and become a second nature affecting the body, voice, and mind† (Plato 15). It can be argued that just because you imitate something does not mean that is who the person is. For example, there are plenty of actors who have been acting their whole life, who do not take the roles portrayed the home. Meaning that the roles that the person play in films is not the role they play in their everyday life. Plato then goes to talk about the roles that a person should imitate â€Å"when he comes to a character which is unworthy of him,[then] he will not make a study of that† (Plato 16). Plato feels that a good person should imitate roles that are only good in nature. Once again Plato fails to realize how a person imitating something bad could have a positive effect on the people. Imitating can have positive effects on society by allowing them to see what is not good for a society. In some cases, the only way to show what something is to imitate it, because it is no longer around. For example, slavery is no longer around, so you most likely cannot find a slave, so you have to imitate it. The topic Plato touches on is having a person do only one job when he says, â€Å"we shall find a shoemaker to be a shoe maker and no a pilot also† (Plato 17). Plato fails to realize that the person may not be imitating but may in fact be able to do more than one things well. This goes back to â€Å"one man can only do on thing well and not many† (Plato 14). Throughout this book, Plato only looks at person doing more than one thing as imitating, and not as being who they really are. In Book IV, Plato focuses on how new music affects the state. Plato wants music to stay the way it has always has been, because Plato fears that when new music comes about the laws of the state changes with it â€Å"when the modes of music changes, the fundamental laws of the state always change with them† (Plato 8). What Plato means is that when new things come about people began to rebel against society, and do what they want. Society does change, but it does not become corrupt. Society changes because new things become accepted such as new styles, slang, and etcetera. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, corrupt means to change from good to bad in morals, manners, or actions. Society was never good in the beginning for it to become corrupt because of music. Not everyone in society started off having good morals, manners, or action. No one is perfect all the time, and neither is a society. In a society there will always be people who break the laws. Just because music changes does not mean society completely changes with it. In today’s society with the hip hop era there is a lot of things that are done now that would not have been done twenty years ago. For example rappers today call females derogatory names, and now a lot of females are excepting to be called those names. While some females are proud to be called those names, other not so much, and they stand up for what they believe in. Plato then goes to say that it is the guardian’s responsibility to pick what is right for the child to hear â€Å"our guardians must lay the foundations of their fortress in music† (Plato 18). This goes back to book II, were the parent will pick what they feel is right for the child to hear. The parents should be educated on the effects that the music can have on the child. Even though music can have no direct effect on one child’s life, it could have an indirect effect. It could have an indirect effect, because of the people who have the direct effect pass it on. While the music can have no direct effect on a child, Plato feels that the child should still be taught on what can be sung at home, and what can be sung at church. For example it is reasonable to sing a gospel song in church, but not a song by Lady Gaga, because it is not appropriate for church. Plato focuses on how new music changes society in negative way, but never says how new music can help society. New music can help society by bringing about new ideas, bringing people together, and it gives the people a sense of expression. According to emedexpert. om, music can help with blood pressure, the heart, and memory. So music is not just something for the soul, but it also helps heal the body. In Book X, Plato focuses on poets and poetry. Plato feels that poetry is an imitation of the soul; he feels that it portrays a bad part of the soul. Plato argues that the soul is quiet and stable. By quiet and stable Plato means that the souls have no emotion, and should not act angry, or any other way that can be seen as bad by sayingâ€Å" and he is also like him in being concerned with an inferior part of the soul† (Plato 29). For some people poetry is an outlet for people to express themselves, and get their angry and frustrations out. Plato also feels that it poet write about things that they have no knowledge of â€Å"the poet is like a painter who, as we have already observed, will make likeness of a cobbler though he understands nothing of cobbling; and his pictures is good enough for those who know no more than he does, and judge only by colors and figures† (Plato 24). No one can judge whether a person’s poetry is true or not, most likely no one knows the person personally to make that judgment. It might be things that the poet writes about that happened years ago. He feels that Poets cannot be factual educators because they do not know what is good. Poetry is an art that is supposed to felt, and it supposed to bring out the bad part of the soul, because it is the part that needs to be expressed. So Plato’s argument about the soul being stable and quiet is false, because nobody is happy all the time. Plato believes that once one gets in touch with their angry side, one will start to become an angry person, and that poetry will not be entertainment, but the way some people handle situations in life. Plato is so convinced that poetry is so bad for the soul, he never talks about how it could heal the soul. Poetry can help heal the soul by letting out built up emotions. Plato banishes poetry for the republic because they are unwholesome and dangerous. In the end, Plato has set rules and banned the people and arts that he does not want for his republic. Plato’s republic will be very simple, and will not allow hardly any new art. No new music will be allowed for the fear that it will corrupt the state. No poetry will be allowed for the fear of letting people getting in touch will their emotional side. Overall, Plato fails to do what he planned on doing, and that is improving society. Throughout The Republic, Plato keeps the same narrow mind set by not seeing the good in art. He failed on improving society by failing to see how the arts can help him change society, rather than corrupt society.

Ethical Decision Making Essay

Abstract Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines questions of morality, or right and wrong. In this paper we will discuss the philosophical approaches used in ethical decision making. The two approaches that will be elaborated on are the utilitarian approach and the universal approach. Several questions will be addressed, (1) what is the utilitarian and universal approach? (2) How do we use them in the ethical decision making process and (3) examples of how it relate in the field of Criminal Justice? When conflict arises it’s not always possible to decide who is right or wrong; however our moral responsibility is to resolve problems to the best of our ability. The utilitarian and universal theories are two of several philosophical approaches or methods that can be implemented when making these types of decisions (Zalta & Geoff, 2008). The Utilitarian Approach: Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. The utilitarian approach to ethical decision making focuses on taking the action that will result in the greatest good for the greatest number of people. It also focuses on the consequences of the course of action and policy, as well as the affects it has on the well-being of the people directly or indirectly impacted by that action or policy. This approach is used to promote the welfare of everybody by maximizing benefits and minimizing harm (Zalta & Geoff, 2008). For instance, when faced with a situation your first thought or question is what should you do? Once you assess the situation then you would apply which ethical decision is the best action to take. If you implement the utilitarian approach you did so with the intent of producing the greatest balance over harm. Utilitarianism offers a relatively straightforward method for deciding the morally right course of action for any particular situation we may find ourselves in. In the criminal justice field this approach can be widely used. To discover what we ought to do in any situation, we first identify the various courses of action that we could perform. Second, we determine all of the foreseeable benefits and harms that would result from each course of action for everyone affected by the action. And third, we choose the course of action that provides the greatest benefits after the costs have been taken into account (Velasquez, Claire, Shanks, & S.J). The Universal Approach: The universal approach to ethical decision making is similar to the Golden Rule. The golden rule is best interpreted as â€Å"Treat others as you want to be treated†. Universalism argues that knowledge can and should be applied to everyone in every similar situation (Williams & Arrigo, 2008). This approach can be taken in two steps. First, determine whether or not a particular action should be applied to all people under all circumstances. Second, decide if you would be willing to have that same rule to you. This approach claims that ethical principles hold for all and not for some, it is for everybody without exception (Williams & Arrigo, 2008). In other words if you act a certain way towards another and are not willing to be treated in that same regard than you are in violation of the universal rule. To apply the universal approach correctly we need to take into consideration the effects our decision making have on other people’s lives. We also have to be able to imagine ourselves in the other person’s shoes on the receiving end of the action. Imagine you are a police officer in pursuit of what seems to be a drunk driver, while in pursuit the drunk driver hits a pregnant woman crossing the street. What do you do, do you stop for her and leave a drunk driver on the road, or do you call the accident in and continue to pursue the drunk driver to keep him from potentially killing himself and others. The utilitarian approach would more likely call for back up and continue after the drunk driver, but if we use this same example and compare it to the universal approach, the question then becomes what would you want done to you. Both philosophical approaches are infused with flaws, the use of â€Å"utilitarian† thinking is not always clear of what form of action should be taken or if the action you took will have a favorable outcome for the majority. It is difficult to judge what decision will supply the best way to respond to a situation. The universal approach unlike the utilitarian bases its decisions on the facts that the action taken is best for everyone regardless of the situation or the difference in people. My choice between the two is somewhat tossed, because my belief is that you should do unto other as you would want done to you, but at the same time my desire to ensure the greatest number of success is important to me as well. Within the Judicial system decisions are made with or without the input of others; however it is our moral obligation to ensure that we make the best ethical decisions that we can, because every decision somehow directly or indirectly affects someone else. References Velasquez, M., Claire, A., Shanks, M. M., & S.J. (n.d.). Markula Center for Applied Ethics. Retrieved from Santa Clara University: http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/thinking.html Williams, C. R., & Arrigo, B. A. (2008). Is Morality Relative? The variability of Norms and Values. In C. R. Williams, & B. A. Arrigo, Ethics, Crime and Criminal Justice (p. 77). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. Zalta, E. N., & Geoff, S.-M. (2008). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosphy : http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaethics/

Skills Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Skills Management - Assignment Example Proper managerial skills are also characterized by placing the organization at a competitive advantage at ensuring they enjoy and dominate the market shares. From the above facts, it is essential for any organization to have its top leadership acquire managerial skills which can allow them intact easily with the rest of the stakeholders and look for better ways of managing their resources. This will ensure they keep up to date all the necessary information needed at ensuring they maximize on the potential of their organization. Similarly, putting proper managerial skills will help in individual developments and ensure they effectively perform all the assigned function. This paper will outline time and workflow management skills as the nominated skill towards understanding how organizations operate. Similarly, the paper will summarize some related guidelines towards the development of time and workflow skills by individuals. Outline of the issues Time and workflow has been one of the skills most organizational managers lacks in the course of performing their daily duties. There are a lot of significances in relation to time and workflow skills which managers need to adopt at ensuring they meet their needs as well as the set goals. Time has become one of the fundamental resources as it is limited and irreplaceable. Most of the effective managers are ware of the limiting factors related to time and workflow (Drucker, 2001: 225-240). The scarcity in time influences the output hence is an important factor towards realizing the success. Most managers have not been able to use their time well in accomplishing the desired goals as research illustrates that only a small percentage of managers use their time towards achieving purposefully. Similarly, the cost of misused time among the leaders has been high which indicates the degree in which they lack the essential skills towards managing time (Mankins, 2004: 58-64). The misuse ins in relation to increased frustration th ey undergo, distorted strategic decisions, misused products and developments opportunities as well as poor and long term investments. In as much as organizations wants to establish time management skills, they should look at the fundamental factors needed at ensuring they put proper management skills and adopt effective means of doing things. This may call for adopting common time management matrix which will ensure every beet of their time is utilized in the benefit of the organization. Managers should stay by setting priorities in terms of important matters first. The important issues the managers may consider can be decided into urgent and the ones not urgent (Loehr & Schwatz, 2005). Working of the important urgent matters may pertain to crisis, any pressing problem and close deadlines of the organization projects. Working on these important activities within the stipulated time will help in conserving and managing time for other things. Similarly, there are important things that the organization and managers should do which don’t call for urgent measures in efforts to save time. This may include activities in relation to planning and recreation, looking for new

Compare and Assess Rawls and Nozick's Theories of Justice Essay

Compare and Assess Rawls and Nozick's Theories of Justice - Essay Example By using social contract as a device he formulated his theory on ethical basis which has been quite opposing to the concepts of utilitarianism. He further provided justification about the concept of re-distribution of wealth based upon the individualist assumptions. This philosophical work of Rawls has been quite inspirational for both the social democratic and the liberals. He also presented his theory on â€Å"justice as fairness† that highlighted two core principles i.e. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others (this principle reflects a traditional liberal commitment to formal equality) Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged; and (B) attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity (this so-called 'difference principle) points towards a significant measure of social inequ ality According to the Rawls theory the material inequalities can only be justified when they are used to be of advantage to those who are least well-off. This theory of Rawls is well-matched to the concept of a market economy whereby the re-distribution of wealth is done in terms of tax and welfare systems that ultimately leads to disincentive to firms and ultimately turns out disadvantageous for the least well-off. The egalitarianism of Rawls is based on the social contract theory however there is also some contradiction as he starts with a very liberal assumption about humans and then gives very broad conclusion in terms of egalitarianism considering distribution of wealth as fair by the people(hawk n.d.). Robert NozicksTheory of Anarchy, State and Utopia The major philosophical work presented by Robert Nozick was in 1974 as â€Å"Anarchy, State and Utopia† in which he presented a libertarianism point of view. According to this theory he rejects the belief of those having welfare views in terms of modern liberalism however he endorsed the concept of minimal state. Nozick placed his view of justice and equality upon the idea of entitlements and rights. This ideology is somewhat reflective of the notion of distributive thought presented by Aristotle and Plato in which they suggested that the material benefits should correspond to the worth of an individual. According the views presented on rights it is believed that the inequality in material is justifiable in this way that the talent and willingness of a person to work are unequally distributed. The basis of Nozicks work is to distinguish between the historical principles of justice and the end-state principles. According to his view the needs of individuals and social equality are unjustifiable in relation to rewards. He gave the principles through which it can be found whether the distribution of wealth is just, these principles are as: 1. Wealth has to be justly acquired in the first place, that is , it should not have been stolen and the rights of others should not have been infringed 2. Wealth has to be justly transferred from one responsible person to another 3. If wealth has been acquired or transferred unjustly this injustice should be rectified According to these principles Nozick justifies that the inequality in distribution of we

The project Y2K Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The project Y2K - Assignment Example I would ensure that my duties as well as those of my team members are very clear as well as indicating the responsibilities that can or cannot be delegated (Anantatmula, 2010). Similarly, I would clearly indicate on the firm policy paper the vision of the organization and every new employee would be oriented on the firm vision and the way to achieve it. Employee would also be trained on integrity including the ethics issues that they need to maintain at all times.Good managers need to emulate technology and form a strong teamwork. In order to help my organization to be successful just like the Y2K project, I would ensure that we invest more in modern technology. The Y2K project was successful due to the close monitoring and assessment by use of modern communication systems in US (Leybourne, 2009). Additionally, I would ensure that communication system within the organization. This would ensure that team members are able to make instant report or feedback to ensure that the project do es not deviate from its course. Project managers must involve other team members in undertaking the functions of a project. This implies that project managers should emulate delegating their powers. Project managers have the responsibility of assigning duties to other members of the team, manage daily operations, execute plans and manage budget among other duties. By being assisted for example by the junior accounting officers on the cost effective materials as a delegated duty, managing the project budget.

Advanced Principles of Human Computer Interaction Essay

Advanced Principles of Human Computer Interaction - Essay Example This matte area is marginally raised from the surface for a functional reason. On the matte area, on the four points of the compass are four playback buttons. At the north, a point is a â€Å"MENU† button that allows you to navigate through the menus. At the west, a point is a step back button. At the south, a point is a play/pause button. At the last point is a step forward button.   The MENU button takes you from the normal screen to a menu screen that allows you to navigate to different capabilities including â€Å"Music†, â€Å"Photos† and â€Å"Videos† options on the menu. You can then enter each of these menus and navigate through them and if you want to go back up to the previous level of the menu then you can just press the MENU button again. This allows you to move back through the menu systems if you have made a mistake during your navigation. Each time that you press it will take you to the next level up in the menu system until you reappear at the original screen that you started from.   The step back button allows you to go back to the beginning of the playback of an item should you wish to. It allows you to return to the start of a song or a movie if you should need to do that. If you press the button twice then you will return to the start of the previous item and each time that press the button after that you will be moved to the item before that until you reach the start of the playlist. The step forward works in reverse since clicking on it will take you one item further on for every click of the button until the end of the playlist   The play/pause button determines the playback of items depending on the number of times you press the button. If you press it once then the item will play and if you press it twice then the track or video will freeze in place and continue from that spot when the button is pressed again.

Theatre Critique It's Only a Play Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Theatre Critique It's Only a Play - Essay Example The comedy play was a celebration of the art and actors performed with lot of conviction. The play was a cascade of jokes and made the audience happy from the beginning to the end, which is a sign of victory. 2.The performer â€Å"Kate Herell who acted as virginia† seems to not have delivered her lines completely at times so did not come up to the mark. The performance of â€Å"Craig as Ira† was well defined and the gestures were perfect indeed.He came up to the mark and left a remarkable impression on the audience. â€Å"Emma† was a star that performed utterly well and carried the play with ample spirit .She showed her full potential to the audience and was the shooting star of the play. Christopher who enacted â€Å"Peter† was looked slightly uncomfortable in his character and required more attentiveness and dedication from his side to make his character look wholesome and rich. Nick Dickert was distinct in his acting and did full justice to his characte r as â€Å"James† but his voice was trembling at certain points. 3. The performers who were disliked were Kate Herell, Christopher Lynch and Ryan Flint.Kate Was not impressive as she was not consistent with her dialogues. There was less of life in her voice and could not enter well in to the character of â€Å"Virginia† which she was potrayed.Whereas, Christopher Lynch was not feeling fully the character of â€Å" Peter† and some how looked less lively and vibrant. It is very essential for an actor to get in to the shoes of the character to bring about full life in to the play. On the other side Ryan Flint had a less powerful voice which made his character of â€Å"Frank† dull. Dialogues are an essential part of a play, so if it is not balanced with the acting skill can bring in chaos and incompleteness to the character as well as the play. 4. The play all in all was an average performance and did not fail to amaze the audience. But it was unfortunate to notice some actors not supporting others and making it a t time’s poor performance. In some areas â€Å"Christopher Lynch† was not interacting well with â€Å"Kate Herell† and was in a hurry to completer his part of the dialogue. And also Kate seems to rush through some parts showing that she had forgotten certain lines. Noah Mittman, at other times is displaying to be very overpowering, thus making all actors less confident and assertive. It is not good for one actor to stand out in a play because a good play is where all characters blend with each other to produce a smooth and sound theatrical show. Craig Ewing in some of the scenes was attempting to be the one man of the show by giving dialogues loud. DIRECTING 5. The unified idea of the director behind this play is to create a play which is a complete comedy in nature and which will keep the audience laugh all the while they are wathcing.The entire cast of the show was also doing the same by being extremely joyous and filled with humor sense. The director made a striking visual image with the cab driver who was played by Emma as she was costumed distinctly and apart from other actors of the play. Even Julia and Virginia played by â€Å"Ilasiea Gray†and Kate Herell respectively were dressed glamorously and colorfully which was a visual treat. The lighting of the play was striking and bright which added to the whole theme of the play. SCENERY 6. The whole background of the play was the room where all the characters were waiting for the review of their acting. The room had light colored wall and a

Aperfan Disaster 1966 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Aperfan Disaster 1966 - Essay Example In 1947 the British Government entity, National Coal Board (NCB) acquired the ownership of Merthyr Vale. This was after the Prime Minister Clement Atlee’s nationalized the coal industry with the aim of further industrializing Britain. Aberfan has a population of about 60,000 people. The population is made up of the English, Welsh and Irish mixture of people who came to work in the mines. The villagers have strong kinship ties which bond them together as a unit of one family depicting strong attachment they have for the village (Rapoport, 2005). The mining operation yielded a great deal of excavated mining spoil comprising of debris, loose rock, slag and residues referred to as tip. This led to the establishment of about 7 tips for depositing the spoil. The seventh tip was located on the Merthyr mountainside overlooking the Aberfan village. The tips were created by emptying colliery rubbish loaded trams as one creates children sandcastles. The tips contained a mixture of coarse material and tailings (the finer materials) produced as waste at the mines. The first tip was opened during the First World War (1914-1918) (Madgewick, 1996). However, there were no regulations, restriction or legislations guiding the creation of tips and monitoring the tipping practice. This led to creation of tips without consultancy from a surveyor who was supposed to examine the proposed tip site by studying its geology, metrology, hydro-geology, the soil type and mechanism (Madgewick, 1996). The surveyors usually give advice and recommendation about the proposed site advising if it is viable for carrying out the proposed project. Therefore, the NCB dumped the spoil on the mountainside indiscriminately. The tips were built over highly porous sandstones and directly above numerous underground springs. NCB found it economical i.e. time and cost saving to damp the spoil near the mining area instead of

Intro to Aircraft Systems Essay Example for Free

Intro to Aircraft Systems Essay All single rotor helicopters need some way to counteract the torque that is created by the rotor blades spinning around the mast. The most common anti-torque system used on helicopters is the Tail Rotor System. The Tail Rotor System is a relatively small rotor and transmission attached at the end of the tail boom that is driven from a shaft coming from the main engine and transmission (ASA, Helicopter Flying Handbook 1-5). Another anti-thrust system used less frequently is the Fenestron system. It is driven in a similar way to the standard tail rotor system but instead of two rotor blades at the end of the boom there is a series of rotating blades that are enclosed in a protective shroud, thus adding a degree in safety by protecting the tail rotor blades from ground contact (ASA, Helicopter Flying Handbook 4-7). The anti-torque system I want to discuss in greater detail is called the â€Å"NOTAR† system. The NOTAR system is dramatically different in design as it does not require another rotor at the end of the tail boom to create thrust and in losing that tail rotor this system has a number of advantages, added safety being one of the crucial benefits. The NOTAR system uses the natural characteristics of aerodynamics along with thrust from pressurized air exiting the tail boom to provide the thrust needed to counter the torque being produced by the main rotor (ASA, Helicopter Flying Handbook 4-7). It does this using the following components that are built into the design of the helicopter: air intake, fan, tail boom the can contain and control airflow, tail thruster cone, and two vertical stabilizers at the end of the tail boom. The first component of this system is the air intake, or a large opening on top of the rear fuselage. This intake is covered by a fine mesh screen designed to keep foreign objects from getting sucked into the system (Wagtendonk 190). The intake pulls air into the second component of this system: an enclosed variable-pitch composite blade fan. This fan’s purpose is to create a low pressure and high volume of ambient air that is sent into the tail boom, pressurizing it in the process. The fan blades are variable-pitch meaning their pitch, or pitch angle, can be increased or decreased creating more or less volume of air that is being introduced into the tail boom (Wagtendonk 190). The fan is located just behind the main transmission where the tail boom connects to the fuselage and is driven directly by the main rotor gearbox, this ensures that the fan is always providing directional control including when in auto rotation (Wagtendonk 190). The tail boom is the third and very crucial component of the NOTAR system. It looks similar to a standard tail boom but has a bigger circumference, is made from composite material and is completely hollow on the inside. The tail boom is designed with two parallel slots that run the length of the right side that allow the fan air (low pressure) to flow out and downwards (Wagtendonk 190). This movement of airflow energizes, or speeds up, the boundary layer of downwash flow that is created by the main rotor. This is called the Coanda effect (Wagtendonk 190). This essentially makes the tail boom a wing in relationship to the airflow created by the main rotor- low pressure on the right side and high pressure on the left side creating lift/thrust in the opposite direction of the torque from the main rotor. The Coanda effect is most effective when the helicopter is at a hover and can produce up to 60% of the needed anti-torque force. When forward speed is gained or in windy conditions the main rotor downwash begins to angle away from the tail boom reducing the Coanda effect (ASA Helicopter Flying Handbook 4-7). At the end of the tail boom we have another component to this system that provides the remaining force needed to produce enough anti-torque: the rotating direct jet thruster cone. The direct jet thruster is basically a nozzle at the end of the tail boom that directs the flow of the pressurized fan driven air. When the airflow reaches the nozzle, it first hits baffles located inside the rotating nozzle, which helps direct the airflow out the rectangular opening on the cone (Wagtendonk 191). The pilot can control the orientation of the cone by making pedal inputs- pressing the left pedal points the opening on the cone to the left side creating more anti-torque while right pedal turns the cone to the right reducing the anti-torque thrust (Wagtendonk 191). The final component to the NOTAR system is the twin vertical stabilizers that are attached on each end of the horizontal stabilizer. These stabilizers provide most of the anti-torque once the helicopter is in forward flight (ASA Helicopter Flying Handbook 4-7). Unlike the standard helicopter vertical stabilizer the left stabilizer actually moves and acts like a rudder, moving in unison with the rotation of the direct jet thruster (Wagtendonk 192). The right stabilizer is more like a â€Å"yaw damper† and is hooked up to a Yaw Stability Augmentation System (YSAS) (Stephens, â€Å"NOTAR: More Than What It Appears To Be†). The YSAS consists of a small electro-mechanical actuator that moves the right stabilizer based off of information coming from a yaw rate gyro and lateral accelerometer that is installed in the cockpit (Stephens, NOTAR: More Than What It Appears To Be†). There are some distinct advantages of the NOTAR system over the more conventional tail rotor and Fenestron anti-torque systems. One obvious advantage when comparing the NOTAR system to any other helicopter in flight is the amount of noise level reduced due to the lack of another added rotor (Abdollahi 6). In fact the MD 900 (which uses NOTAR) boasts the lowest noise levels of comparable helicopters (Abdollahi 6). Another advantage the NOTAR system has over the conventional tail rotor design is added safety. With no tail rotor, the NOTAR system eliminates the hazards of tail rotor strike, foreign object damage, and eliminates hazards involving people walking into the tail rotor (Wagtendonk 189). Also, the ability to control the heading in crosswind conditions is improved, and tail rotor blade stalls are eliminated (Wagtendonk 189). Though the NOTAR system is not widely used in the helicopter industry it is proven to be a highly effective, safer, anti-torque system. Its simple design using the natural characteristics of aerodynamics adds to its advantages, as does the additional safely gained regarding passengers and the pilot by eliminating the need for a tail rotor.

Porters Five Forces Study of Starbucks

Porters Five Forces Study of Starbucks Executive Summary: Given case study maps the situation of the company in 2009. In this assignment we will date back to a timeline of about 25 years and see how Starbucks developed their business. We will also see the strategies applied and the present situation of the company with the application of Porters five competitive forces. Finally we will have a look at the future recommendations to reap a profit from the business Part: 1 Starbucks Coffee Company Founded in year 1971 First headquarter in Seattle USA Business in 37 countries Expansion started 1982 with Howard Schultz joined Starbucks has evolved from being a $.50 million business to a business that worth $6.4 billion Howard Schultz is the Chairman, President Chief executive officer History: 1971: Pike Place Market in Seattle was the first place where Starbucks store was settled 1982: Howard Schultz joined the company as marketing and retailing head 1985: Espresso bar concept 1987: Schultz purchased Starbucks and merged his business Giornale Coffee House with Starbucks 1987: Expands Business in the American market by starting outlets in British Columbia and Chicago 1992: With a business comprising of 165 outlets, Starbucks gets listed with its first public stock offering. 1996: Expands business to Japan, Tokyo was the first place. 2003: Starbucks expansion continues at a robust rate and it translates into a company with 6400 outlets worldwide. 2008: Global economic meltdown resulted loss in profitability, Starbucks decided to shuts down 600 outlets across the world and also exits the Australian market. Howard Schultz Chairman, President Chief executive officer VISION, OBJECTIVES AND MISSION Vision Statement: To establish Starbucks as most familiar and appreciated brand in the world and become a national business with values and guiding principles that employee could be proud of The vision statement clearly describes the dream or the future of the company that is to be the worlds most well known coffeehouse and also to be the most appreciated and positively graded brand by all levels of people around the world. The company also focuses its vision to employee satisfactions, so that the employees will be happy. Objectives of Starbucks: Is to grow by making employees feel valued Is to recognize that every dollar earned passes through employees hands The Six principles are: Respect and dignity Quality Diversity Profitability Satisfied customers Commitment Corporate Values and Business Principles: Building a Company with Soul Opposing Franchising because of Quality Control and Culture Only selling coffee beans without artificial flavors. Satisfy customers by all means. Employees contribution and involvement in making Starbucks a better company Corporate Social Responsibility: Establish the Starbucks Foundation in 1997 A major contributor of CARE, worldwide relief and development organization (Health, Education, and Humanitarian aid) Participate in local charitable projects. Provides financial support to community literacy organizations 2004 EnviroStars Recognized Leader Award for its community service and environmental activities Value Chain: Starbucks do not have a vertically integrated supply chain. It always works at increasing its relationship with its suppliers through the fair trade initiative Success Factors for Starbucks: Factors which helped Starbucks to gain success Starbucks were the first coffee makers in business Starbucks started their operation in the year 1987 under Howard Schultz Within the first five years they had 150 stores. First specialty coffee retailing chain in the market. First move advantage gave Starbucks a reason to establish a value proposition within customers and comes with a unique brand positioning. Profits were huge enough to allow them invest in their expansion plans. Market Research: Starbucks performed comprehensively study for expansion and enter into new markets. 1991 was the year in Starbucks moved to California resulted after a lot of market research. The reason why California people adapt quickly to changing lifestyle and that is the reason of choosing California. Employee Satisfaction Motivation: Starbucks played a major role in this aspect. Highly motivated and well trained staff resulted the high level of employee satisfaction. Starbucks offered health benefits to their employees for employees who worked more than twenty hours in a week. Starbucks Strategies (1983- 2008) Schultz restored the old and honest employees of Starbucks to give the best service to the customers. Dave Lawrence was hired as a executive vice presented and charged with leading operation, finance and human resources. In order to increase the market share, Starbucks has differentiated itself in providing a unique experience to its customers. In order to create a unique value proposition, Starbucks have created stores with specific themes. Secondly they have a focus on different flavors of beverages to suit peoples needs. Starbucks have developed the market for specialty coffee industry for America. In this context, Starbucks have created brand awareness and henceforth have created a demand for coffee stores amongst American population. Therefore, they have taken coffee from a commodity market to a specialty item. New logo was invented to match the culture of the Starbucks and Giornale. New espresso machines were equipped and look more Italian than old world nautical Chicago store opened in October 1987 as per expansion strategy Identifying inability of the customers for having a cup of coffee in the winter season in Chicago, Schultz solved the problem of freshness and quality assurance by putting freshly roasted beans in special flavor lock bags that used vacuum packaging technique. Portland, oregon was the next market the company entered. Entered in L.A in late 1991. Opened 15 new stores in 1988, 20 in 1989, 30 in 1990, and 53 in 1992, producing a total of 161 stores in US. Also went for franchising concept to retrieve the cost for new store expansion. In order to make Starbucks a great place to work Schultz accepted to expand healthcare coverage to include part-time workers. To oversee the expansion process Starbucks created zone wise vice presidents to direct the development of each region and to implant the Starbucks culture in the newly opened stores. Starbucks had created a new subsidiary, Starbucks coffee international, to orchestrate overseas expansion and build the Starbucks brand name globally via license. To accommodate its strategy of rapid store expansion. In august 2002 Starbucks teamed up with T-mobile USA, the largest carrier-owned Wi-Fi services, to experiment with Providing internet access and enhanced digital entertainment to patrons at over 1200 Starbucks locations. Part 2 Starbucks Performance (Fiscal 2009 Annual Report) Stores Open : Store Sales Growth: (1) Store openings are reported net of closures. (2) Of the approximately 800 total US stores identified for closure, 566 stores and 205 stores were closed in fiscal 2009 and 2008, respectively. (3) Starbucks restructured its Australia market by closing 61 stores in fiscal 2008. Of the approximately 100 International stores (incremental to the Australia closures in fiscal 2008) identified for closure, 41 stores were closed in various markets in fiscal 2009. Net Revenues: Operating Cash Flow Capital Expenditures: Company revenues decreased from fiscal 2008, primarily attributable to a 6% decline in comparable store sales, comprised of a 4% decline in transactions and a 2% decline in the average value per transaction. Foreign currency translation also contributed to the decline with the effects of a stronger US dollar relative to the British pound and Canadian dollar. The weakness in consolidated comparable store sales was driven by the US segment, with a comparable store sales decline of 6% for the year. The International segment experienced a 2% decline in comparable store sales. The Company derived 16% of total net revenues from channels outside the Company-operated retail stores, collectively known as specialty operations. The decrease in Foodservice and other revenue was primarily due to the softness in the hospitality industry. Schultzs Actions in 2008/2009 Retrained all the store employees They reduced operating costs by $600m per anum Simplified the product range They Closed 1,000 worst-performing stores Introduced Fairtrade coffee Started advertising Porters Five Forces Potential entry of Competitors (Low). Differentiation: Coffee industry companies tries to achieve differentiation in their service qualities through stores ambience, staff and complimentary products. Hence it becomes difficult for new players to imitate the existing business models. Potential development of substitute products (Low) Companies such as Pepsi and Coca Cola have been a threat to specialty coffee retailing from a substitute perspective. In the current situation this threat has been lowered considerably Bargaining power of suppliers (High) Trade Policy Farmers associations that practice the fair trade policy. In US this initiative is called the TransFair initiative. Users of these are certified coffee beans are regarded as more reputed by customers and hence most companies such as Starbucks are forced to buy from these farmers. This increases the bargaining power of suppliers. Differentiation Because of the taste differentiation companies need to procure an assortment of different varieties of coffee beans from different specialized farmers. This results the increase in the bargaining power of suppliers. Rivalry among competing firms (High) It faces tough competition from local baristas due to price factor. Starbucks is priced higher than these local players. Starbucks faces stiff competition from McDonalds, Dunkin Donuts and a number of players. Overall the industry is growing but at a slow rate and there are lot of players. Cost: In terms of switching cost, consumers do not pay a high amount when they needs to switch their preferences from Starbucks to other coffee shops. Starbucks have lost a number of its customers because of the high prices. Customers opine that they get the same coffee in other places at lower prices. Bargaining power of consumer (Moderate) Loyalty Programs: Repeated purchases from a single customer become guaranteed customers are bounded to the organization through Loyalty Cards Low Switching Cost It usually plays a negative factor to the companys growth by increasing the bargaining power of buyers. SWOT Analysis Strength: Starbucks has proven to give an outstanding performance in customer service and experience. It has its own unique playback songs system which can be used to listen to your choice. Starbucks have changed coffee to a recognized beverage. One of the major strategies of Starbucks is that it has never used expensive television advertising campaigns or brand ambassadors to advertise, instead it has relied more on its universally present cafes, word of mouth publicity and the ambience of its stores. It has maintained a high level of service through which it has achieved a consistent level of customer satisfaction. Weakness: Customers are never loyal to a single store and keep on changing their stores, because when ever Starbucks enters any international market it opens a large number of stores within close vicinity Sales of individual stores are never stable. Because of the recent recession, the levels of same store sales and margins have come down. The fourth quarter results have shown a loss of 70% in the companys net income and share prices have fallen by 33 cents. There has been a closure of 600 stores and lay off for 6700 stores. Opportunities: Along with coffee Starbucks has also branched out to produce DVDs, CDs, t-shirts and other proprietary food product offerings. The market for these products has grown considerably and gives a great opportunity to Starbucks for leveraging their brand. Starbucks should also look at exploring some of the emerging economies in South Eastern Asia such as India where the economy is stable. Threats: The economic recession is a threat for Starbucks since they had to close down a large number of stores leading to declining profits and large level of unemployment. McDonalds and Dunkin Donuts serve high quality green coffee also which is an impending factor on Starbucks growth. Starbucks is facing major challenges from competitors such as McDonalds and Dunkin Donuts. Strategic Synopsis: Starbucks faces an extremely challenging fiscal 2009 due to the ongoing economic slowdown. It noted that its customers may have less money for discretionary spending as a result of job losses, foreclosures, and bankruptcies. Any resulting decreases in customer traffic or average value per transaction will negatively impact the companys financial performance as reduced revenues result in sales de-leveraging which creates downward pressure on margins. The company also said it expects negative comparable store sales for fiscal 2009 and that additional restructuring measures may be needed in the future if Starbucks is unable to improve its financial performance. PART: 3 Customer, Market, Market Segment: Customer Segment: Its is well known for its coffee as well as the relationships formed with its customers. This targets college students and business people in general, as well as individuals. Target Market Starbucks us always adult -focused and look forward to aim to connect with their customers, childrens and communities through different types of advertisements tactics. College age group and post graduates are the big growing market. Market Attraction Targeting adults and young adults is a good mechanism for Starbucks because this age level has the same interests as the foundation that promotes arts, culture, education, and the environment (starbucks.com). The company satisfies their customers through their advertising, support programs and, of course, their coffee. Resources and Capabilities A: Resources, capabilities and Strategic Assets: Every company or organization needs and owns certain resources, capabilities or competencies and also assets which are a necessity to endure and prosper globally. The resources consist of: Creating Competitive Edge Intangible Resources Recipe Employee relationship Large customer base Reputation of products and services Tangible Resources Large number of outlets Machinery equipments Operations in 37 countries RESOURCES CATEGORIES STARBUCKS RESOURCES PHYSICAL RESOURCES Operation in 40 countries Conventionally taste and environment. Effective segmentation. Supply chain management. Large number of outlets. FINANCIAL RESOURCES Turnover of  £46.56 billion in 2009. Gross margins of  £4.13 billion in 2009. Profit of  £2.1 billion in 2009. HUMAN RESOURCES Greatly competent labour force. Young and prosperous. INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL Reputation for excellence Brand image built as taste, environment. Strategic capability of Starbuck: CATEGORIES STARBUCK RESOURCES THRESHOLD RESOURCES solid supply chain. Young and affluent workforces. THRESHOLD COMPETENCIES Quality. Reliability. Dealings and relationship with its employees and customers. UNIQUE RESOURCES Hi-tech coffee machines equipments. Extraordinary labour force CORE COMPETENCIES Technology. Speed of production. Known as The Best coffee provider B: Structure, Culture and organizational knowledge There are very less companies who can boast to be as consistent as Starbucks in terms of attracting the customers which is always adjusting itself for the demand of the time with seamless quality and efficiency. The adjustment which is the company is willing to accept all the time is what makes it different from the rest. Their philosophy of the Starbucks is to provide product which are marvel of taste but also come with value and satisfaction. B: STRATEGIC CHOICE Identification of Strategic Options Ansoffs Product/Market Matrix Considering the approach of STARBUCKS they should continue to go with what they are doing currently. It means stick to what they do best. I think that they do need to enter new markets for themselves and in particular ASIA. Currently STARBUCKS is not one of the most commonly used or known brands in ASIAN region. To pin point the region the areas to focus must be China and South Asian markets. STARBUCKS has set its sights on Chinese Niche market with view of the massive growth in Chinese economy and the wealth generated. Working in China would also mean that they will be able to work with the best available technology and also the fast growing consumer market that exists within China. Other region of interest can be South Asian emerging markets and in particular India who are enjoying a massive boom in economy and also buying power. In my opinion the strategy used needs to be Business to Customer or B2C as this strategy has already served STARBUCKS Group very well in the past. The benefit of the strategy will be that it will be Product driven and will also maximize the value of the transaction and plus they will have larger target markets. This will also ensure that there will be a single step buying process and will enhance brand identity and also the brand image will also work as an extra helping hand for the company. B2C strategy will ensure the brand loyalty and also will promote emotional buying decisions which will base on status, price or may be desire. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION Starbucks should continue with its operation in the growing economies and markets and diversify themselves to new markets where ever possible. As most of markets of Europe and America are at a stage of maturity, the realistic option for growth is diversion to new markets. The markets of Europe and America are older and also are very established for the Starbucks and it also has developed a brand loyal segment of customers behind them. That is the reason they need to consolidate the work they have so far put in to the emerging markets and consumers. To put the strategy into action STARBUCKS needs to consider the below stated aspects so that the transition or change over to new markets is as smooth as it can get. The timing is one of the major aspects which need to be taken care off or estimated beforehand. Since company already has its plants based in INDIA and CHINA; they still need to develop them further to enhance production and meet the growing demand of a growing market and also a growing consumer base. The time it will take for them to either acquire or go into further and further of franchise growth model. The other important type of strategy in which STARBUCKS has been largely successful is by creating their 100% subsidiaries in the emerging markets so that it becomes a strategic asset for the company and would usually mean that it will be cost effective manufacturing by producing it in developing countries; which means that they will have relatively less expensive labour at their disposal in comparison with already developed countries and markets. The constraints for company can be the rise in prices of raw materials will definitely impact pricing and positioning of the brand. They will also have to work extensively to keep up to date with taste of consumers and also their preferences in terms of product. Another factor can be the potential of the markets suggested will definitely appeal to the competition and it might trigger a price war and fierce rivalry amongst the industry players. The fluctuation in international business will also affect STARBUCKS in particularly the international currency market. This strategic plan may be able to help STARBUCKS achieve a safer journey ahead and they will be able to sustain a strong foothold in the world. Starbucks should continue to open new locations worldwide. Starbucks is extremely dependent on its domestic success, and yet has a variety of countries it has not explored opportunities in. However, it is recommended that Starbucks tread lightly and with caution, insuring proper social and cultural analysis before plunging into a country. This is apparent in the fact that Starbucks was forced to close three retail stores in Singapore last year.   

Study Of Falls In The Elderly

Study Of Falls In The Elderly Aging is a normal phenomenon in all over the world so that the necessity of old age care is very important. WHO states that world countries have accepted the chronological age of 65 years as a definition of elderly. Nowadays, world is developing too fast I all the sectors especially in medical science and technology. It makes great differences in the life span and the quality of life of the people. The fastest population increase has been in the number of those aged 85 and over, the oldest old. In 1984, there were around 660,000 people in the UK aged 85 and over. Since then the numbers have more than doubled reaching 1.4 million in 2009. By 2034 the number of people aged 85 and over is projected to be 2.5 times larger than in 2009, reaching 3.5 million and accounting for 5 per cent of the total population. (Office of national statics 2010). Falls is one of the most common problems in old age. Elder people falls frequently and it can cause serious injuries such as fracture, dislocation and head injuries (Dr.Roberts A 1995). Falls represent the most frequent and serious type of accident in the over 65s. While improvements have been made in the care of hip fractures, the report reveals 37 per cent of people still arent receiving a falls assessment (AgeUK 2010). The work experiences in care home helped me to know about common problems of old age. I understand, falls is one of the common problems in old age. However, this study will helps me to explore about what are the causes of falls in the old age and how we can reduce and prevent the frequency of falls. Office of national statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=949 WHO http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/index.html AgeUK http://www.ageuk.org.uk/latest-press/archive/age-uk-responds-to-national-hip-fracture-database-national-report-2010/ SEARCH STRATEGY To find information about my independent study topic, I came across with much verity of articles and literature such as books, journals, eBooks, internet, databases etc. A plenty of databases I were searched, for example, EBSCO, PUBMEB,BMJ,CINHAL,BNI and Google web search and Google books also. University website helped me to locate and use the relevant databases more effortlessly. These databases helped me to search and study about my topic falls in the old age care. When I start searching about my topic, I found a huge amount of literature in my screen. To sort out the relevant information from the many articles I used the inclusion and exclusion methods and some keywords, that is the literature is not more than ten is years old and research nature, then I used some key words related to my topic such as falls in the old age, causes of falls, risk factors of falls and prevention of falls. When I start search in EBSCO, The search exposed few results with relevance to falls among the aged, some results on fractures, three on domestic injuries and deaths and review article on approach to falls and one on urgent situation management of falls. As a part of my study I visited many websites also they are AGE.UK, World Health Organisation (WHO) and office of national statistics. DEFINITION OF FALLS IN THE OLD AGE An event, which results in a person come to rest inadvertently on the ground or other lower level. Globally, an estimated 391 000 people died due to falls in 2002.World Health Organisation. World Health Organisation. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/other_injury/falls/en/index.html CLASSIFICATIONS OF FALL Rein Tideiksaar cited the work of Luckinen, et.al (1994). Falls is classified into mainly four groups. Extrinsic or environmental factors: It includes. Slips, trips or externally included displacements. Intrinsic factors Mobility or balance disorder or loss of consciousness Non-bipedal It includes person falls from the bed, chair or device. Non- identified or non classifiable. It includes fall cannot be identified or described by either a person or collateral damage. Reference Falling in old age : prevention and management (1997) By Rein Tideiksaar http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=426l9wOdfyACpg=PA140dq=classification+of+falls.lach+et+alhl=enei=-o3BTLWdDs2Usway-uDpCAsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=3ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepageqf=false R.B. Shukla, D. Brooks(1996) a guide to care of the Elderly. CAUSES OF FALLS IN THE OLD AGE Falls and unsteadiness of gait are major problems faced by the elderly. Accidental injuries and fatalities due to fall indicate substantial morbidity and mortality in the elderly. (B. Everett Gray,1990).Among all negative outcomes derived from elderly health conditions, falling is considered one of the main causes of functional impairment.( Arlete Maria Valente Coimbra and et al, 2009). Physical causes: Arthritis Parkinsons disease Foot problems Strokes Cardiac failure Mental causes : Depression Dementia Alzheimers disease Drugs and Medication: Sedatives Diuretics Hypotensive age Environmental factors: Hazards in the home (rugs, mats, loose carpets, poor lightings) weather conditions Age- related changes: Balance/gait General frailty Poor vision Poor mobility Non Accidental: Elderly abuse Criminal injury BOOK referred R.B. Shukla, D. Brooks(1996) A guide to care of the Elderly. R.B. Shukla(1999) Care of the elderly. Falls in the elderly of the Family Health Program (2009) Arlete Maria Valente Coimbra, Natalia Aquaroni Ricci, Ibsen Bellini Coimbro, LÄÂ ±lian Tereza Lavras Costallat, http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.uwe.ac.uk/science?_ob=MImg_imagekey=B6T4H-4YCGKNF-1-1_cdi=4975_user=122883_pii=S0167494310000245_origin=search_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2010_sk=999489996view=cwchp=dGLbVlb-zSkWAmd5=bb481983dd92110f0721752512e8a78fie=/sdarticle.pdf Slips, stumbles and falls: pedestrian footwear and surfaces By B. Everett Gray, ASTM Committee F13 on Safety and Traction for Footwear. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1LMK0x-eZiICpg=PA7dq=falls+in+the+elderlyhl=enei=YxbITMerK4qOjAeH_ehysa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=6ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepageq=falls%20in%20the%20elderlyf=false RISK FACTORS OF FALLS IN THE ELDERLY In 2007, 81% of fall deaths were among people 65 and older. Men are more likely to die from a fall. After adjusting for age, the fall fatality rate in 2007 was 46% higher for men than for women. (CDC). Risk factors for fall are categorized according to their origin as follows, age related changes, common pathologic changes and functional impairment, medication effects and environmental factors. (Miller.C, 2008). According to the 2007, WHO report on falls prevention in the old age, classified into four risk factors can cause fall, Behavioural risk factors Environmental risk factors Biological risk factors Socioeconomic risk factors Behavioural risk factors: Behavioural risk factors include human actions, emotions or daily choices. The main Behavioural risk factors are: Multiple medications Use Excess alcohol intake Lack of Exercise Inappropriate Footwear Environmental risk factors Environmental factors encapsulate the interplay of individuals physical conditions and the surrounding environment, including home hazards and hazardous features in public environment. It includes: Poor building design Slippery floors and stairs Looser rugs Insufficient lighting Cracked or uneven sidewalks Biological risk factors Biological factors embrace characteristics of individuals that are pertaining to the human body. For instance, age, gender and race are non-modifiable biological factors. The risk factors are: Age Genter Race Chronic illness Reduced physical, cognitive and affective funct Socioeconomic risk factors Socioeconomic risk factors are those related to influence social conditions and economic status of individuals as well as the capacity of the community to challenge them. It includes, Low income Inadequate housing Lack of social interactions Limited access to health and social service Lack of community resources Reference WHO, Global report on prevention of falls in the old age, (2007) http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/Falls_prevention7March.pdf http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms9o2dvfaQkCprintsec=frontcoverdq=WHo+Global+report+on+falls+Prevention+in+older+Agehl=enei=_rLKTPiRFMuNjAeZ5c3LDwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=1ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepageqf=false CDC, Falls among Older Adults: An Overview http://www.cdc.gov/HomeandRecreationalSafety/Falls/adultfalls.html Nursing for wellness in older adults. Carol A. Miller(2008) p 465 http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUx01gmNLboCpg=PA465dq=risk+factors+of+fallshl=enei=M7zOTPr_C9jPjAfmjdXXBwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=2ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepageq=risk%20factors%20of%20fallsf=false COMPLICATIONS OF FALLS Complications results from falls are the leading cause of death from the injuries in men and women aged over sixty five years and older, with men older eighty five years and older having the highest death rate, more than 180 death in per 100000 population.(john.c.beck, 2004). Falls related mortality is a critical problem in the old population. While the majority of falls among old persons do not result death, falls experienced by this age group are a leading cause of mortality.(Tidekasaar,1997). Fractures of hip and lower extremities are more common and lead to prolonged disability because of impaired mobility. (Robert. K, 2004). The common complications of falls are: Painful soft tissue injuries Fractures : Hip Fractures : Femur Fractures : Humerus Fractures : Wrist Fractures : Ribs Fractures Subdural hematoma Hospitalization Complications of immobilisation Risk of iatrogenic diseases Infections and Inflammations Disabilities Impaired mobility because of physical injury Impaired mobility from fear, loss of self confidence and restriction Of ambulation. Risk of institutionalisation Death Essentials for clinical geriatrics, (Robert Kane, 2004) http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zYgxA_XAM7QCprintsec=frontcoverdq=essentials+for+clinical+geriatrics,robert.l.+kanehl=enei=sgjITInvC4vQjAfkyuRosa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=1ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=complications%20of%20fallsf=false G R S, (Geriatric Review Syllabus), john.c.beck. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zjPf6bJt9RYCpg=PA149dq=complications+of+falling+in+the+elderlyhl=enei=kqDKTOXWIMWOjAeZvZDnDwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=9ved=0CF4Q6AEwCA#v=onepageq=complications%20of%20falling%20in%20the%20elderlyf=false PREVENTION OF FALLS IN THE ELDERLY Prevention of falls is crucial to the health of all older persons, including those without a history of falling, even older persons with no history of falls expresses fearful anticipation of falling. Such persons usually have an underlying gait dysfunction or imbalance problem that may lead to self imposed restriction of activities and mobility and may result in them being house bound or chair bound. Falls cannot be prevented unless the risk factors are identified (National guideline for prevention falls in older persons, 2000) Stephan.R (2007) cited the work of The Kellogg International working group (1987) on the prevention of falls in the elderly as defined as unintentionally coming to the ground or some lower level and other than as a consequences of sustain a violent blow, loss of consciousness, sudden onset of paralysis as in the stroke or an epileptic seizure. Considerable evidence now exists that most falls among older persons are associated with identifiable and modifiable risk factors and that targeted prevention efforts are shown to be cost-effective. Most falls and resulting injuries among older persons are shown to result from a combination of age and disease-related conditions and the individuals interaction with their social and physical environment (WHO,2008). Ebrahim S and A Kalache (1996) describes the causes and prevention of falls: Causes Prevention Uses of drugs Psychological factors Extrinsic factors Alcohol use Assistive devices Cognitive/behavioural/ Social programme Clinical assessment of risk .(Rai G 2006) Warn older person against self medication Rational prescribing of medication Assist disoriented person to take medication Use CNS drugs very carefully and cautiously. Counselling of older people with stress related disorders Provide divertional therapy Environmental factors must be accessed and corrected Ensure obstacles free environment Ensure adequate light and contrast Ensure No loose mat or slipping surface Provide night light Hand rails Advice on safe drinking pattern Review combination of alcohol with other drugs Provide appropriate walking aids Minimise restraint devices Balance and gait training Restore confidence Provide social contact Teach avoidance of risk taking behaviour to person or care giver. History and circumstances of falls Any loss of consciousness Any loss of movement or involuntary movement Any incontinence All prescribed and the over the counter medications Any recent acute and/or ongoing chronic medical problems Any previous problems with gait and balance Chest pain Palpitation Hearing problems Eye sight problems Memory loss Depression Habits relating to alcohol or recreational drugs.(Rai G 2006) The Global report of prevention of falls in the elderly (WHO, 2007) states that multi factorial approach is helpful to prevent falls in the community and elderly. The approaches are Balance and gait training with appropriate use of assistive devices; Environmental risk assessment and modification; Medication review and modification Managing visual problems Providing education and training Addressing foot and shoe problems Addressing orthostatic hypotension and other cardiovascular problems Multi factorial approaches are shown to be the most effect prevention strategy in residential settings. Components of successful multi factorial interventions include: staff training and guidance, changes in medication, resident education, environmental assessment and modification, supply and repair of aids, exercise, and use of hip protectors (WHO, 2007). Hip protectors (a plastic shield sewn into special underwear so that it lies over the greater trochanter) are known to absorb energy when a patient falls, thus reducing the incidence of hip fractures. They are especially beneficial in patients who live in nursing homes and residencial homes, who are very frail and hence have thin bones and prone to recurrent falls and fractures.( Shukla.R, 1999). References Falls in the older people: risk and strategies for prevention (2007). Stephen R. Lord, Catherine Sherrington, Hylton B. Menz http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1enrvVe81YgCpg=PA21dq=prevention+of+falls+in+the+old+agehl=enei=XNXKTL7hH5SSjAeWqIjIDwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=4ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepageq=prevention%20of%20falls%20in%20the%20old%20agef=false WHO, Global report on prevention of falls in the old age, (2007) http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/Falls_prevention7March.pdf http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ms9o2dvfaQkCprintsec=frontcoverdq=WHo+Global+report+on+falls+Prevention+in+older+Agehl=enei=_rLKTPiRFMuNjAeZ5c3LDwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=1ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepageqf=false Ebrahim S and A Kalache (1996), Epidemiology in old age. P.364, BMJ group. Gurucharan Rai, Joe reosethal, Jacqueline morris Steave iliffe (2006) shared care of older people. R.B. Shukla(1999) Care of the elderly. National guideline for prevention falls in older persons, 2000 MANAGEMENT OF FALLS Multi factorial factors had an influence in the falls in the elderly and causes falls so a multi factorial approach management is helpful to prevent falls in the elderly. Multi disciplinary management includes Medical assessment, nursing, physiotherapy, education, occupational therapy, social worker, the dietician, Chiropodist, orthodist and specialist Nurses. (Shukla. R 1996) Rai. G, 2006 states that management of any patients with falls with clearly guided by the findings from history, examination and investigation, such that any identified risk factors or causes of falling can be specifically addressed. Much of the management focuses on prevention of further falls. This will always include careful review of the risk and benefits of any medication which the patient is currently taking. Physiotherapy and occupational therapy can be helpful in identifying and reducing environmental risk for falling. Strength and balance exercise can help individuals learn to get up after a fall. Multi disciplinary management have an important role in the prevention of falls, improving health, risk assessment, health education. References Gurucharan Rai, Joe reosethal, Jacqueline morris Steave iliffe (2006) shared care of older people. R.B. Shukla, D. Brooks(1996) A guide to care of the Elderly. Summery The most important goal of this study was to expand more information about two sets of possible risk factors for falls, causes, prevention and management of falls. The main aetiology of falls is recognized as intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Most of the falls in the older people can be prevented or reduced in frequency if clinicians first begin to view the falls as symptomatic or an underlying problem and , second perform comprehensive assessment to uncover a magnitude of medical, psychological and environmental factors that may cause falls. (R Tideiksaar, 1988). References Falls in the elderly. R Tideiksaar http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1629317/?page=16 Conclusion Fall and fall related injuries are major public health challenges that call for global attention. This problem will increase in magnitude as the numbers of older adults increase in many nations throughout the world( WHO) Every old age person was classified as having an intrinsic or extrinsic fall using the information obtained at the fall assessment. Extrinsic falls were related to environmental hazards (slip, trip or externally induced displacement), whereas intrinsic falls were related to mobility or balance disorder, muscle weakness, orthopaedic problems, loss of consciousness, neurally mediated cardiovascular disorder or sensory impairment. IN my point of view, Prevention is better than cure it an old proverb. It is perfectly applicable in the case of falls in the elderly. As a part of this I understand early detection of risk factors and cause of falls is the most relevant method to prevent injuries, haemorrhage, disabilities, etc in old age. Provide comfortable house and ensure the nursing homes or residential homes are hazards less It can prevent extrinsic factors of fall and environmental hazards. References WHO, Globel report of prevention of falls in the elderly. http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/1.Epidemiology%20of%20falls%20in%20older%20age.pdf RECOMMANDATIONS Center for disease control and prevention (CDC) states that older adults can take several steps to protect their independence and reduce their chances of falling. They can: Exercise regularly. Its important that the exercises focus on increasing leg strength and improving balance. Tai Chi programs are especially good. Ask their doctor or pharmacist to review their medicines-both prescription and over-the counter-to reduce side effects and interactions that may cause dizziness or drowsiness. Have their eyes checked by an eye doctor at least once a year and update their eyeglasses to maximize their vision. Make their homes safer by reducing tripping hazards, adding grab bars and railings, and improving the lighting in their homes. Additional ways to lower hip fracture risk include: Getting adequate calcium and vitamin D in your diet. Undertaking a program of weight bearing exercise. Getting screened and treated for osteoporosis. Center for disease control and prevention (CDC), Falls among Older Adults: An Overview. http://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/falls/adultfalls.html REFLECTION Reflective practice is a process of review an experience of practice in order to describe analyses and evaluate and so inform learn from practice (Sarah B, P 161). WHO has done a study on falls in the elderly and reflected it and states that by building on the three pillars of falls prevention, the model proposes specific strategies for: Building awareness of the importance of falls prevention and treatment; Improving the assessment of individual, environmental, and societal factors that increase the likelihood of falls. For facilitating the design and implementation of culturally-appropriate, evidence-based interventions that will significantly reduce the number of falls among older persons. As a part of my independent study I came across with the topic of falls in the elderly. It gives a huge knowledge about elderly care and how to prevent falls in the elderly.